Canker (Trichomoniasis)

Canker, also known as trichomoniasis, is a common protozoal disease in pigeons caused by Trichomonas gallinae. The parasite is widely carried by pigeons and doves, with many birds acting as asymptomatic carriers. It primarily affects the mouth, throat, crop, and digestive tract, leading to the formation of cheesy yellow plaques and ulcers in the mouth and throat.

Early Clinical Signs of Canker

  • Yellowish plaques or cheesy lesions in the mouth, throat, or crop

  • Difficulty swallowing or regurgitation

  • Excessive salivation  (wet beak or drooling)

  • Crop stasis (slow crop emptying)

  • Increased thirst

  • Slight weight loss

  • Mild lethargy

  • Slight reduction in appetite

Severe Clinical Signs of Canker

  • Swollen or inflamed throat

  • Weakness, rapid weight loss, or emaciation

  • Death in extreme cases, especially in young birds

  • Labored breathing or gurgling sounds (if lesions obstruct the airway)

Transmission

  • Canker is caused by the protozoan Trichomonas gallinae and spreads primarily through direct and indirect contact.

    1. Parent to Squab (Feeding Transmission)

    • The most common way canker spreads is through crop milk when infected parents feed their young.
    • This makes young pigeons highly susceptible.

    2. Contaminated Drinking Water

    • Trichomonas cannot survive long outside the host but can live in water for several hours.
    • Birds drinking from contaminated water sources can easily become infected.

    3. Regurgitated Food

    • Pigeons that feed each other (billing or courtship feeding) can pass the parasite.
    • Sick birds may regurgitate, spreading the infection through shared food sources.

    4. Direct Contact

    • Close contact between birds (especially in crowded lofts) increases the risk.
    • Mating pairs can transmit it through saliva.

    5. Contaminated Surfaces & Equipment

    • Shared waterers, feeders, and even bathing areas can harbor the parasite for a short time.
    • Poor loft hygiene increases the risk of indirect transmission.

    6. Prey-to-Predator Transmission

    • Birds of prey, like hawks and falcons, can contract trichomoniasis by eating infected pigeons.

Diagnosis

  • Diagnosing enteritis in poultry requires a combination of clinical signs, fecal examination, post-mortem findings, and laboratory tests to determine the underlying cause.

    1. Clinical Signs (Observed in live birds)

    • Diarrhea (watery, foamy, bloody, or green)
    • Weight loss or slow growth
    • Lethargy, ruffled feathers, reduced activity
    • Dehydration (sunken eyes, dry comb, weakness)
    • Loss of appetite
    • Decreased egg production in laying hens

    2. Fecal Examination

    • Microscopic fecal analysis can detect parasites (coccidia, worms).
    • Bacterial culture can identify pathogens like E. coli, Salmonella, Clostridium perfringens.
    • PCR testing can confirm viral causes like rotavirus or adenovirus.

    3. Post-Mortem Examination (Necropsy)

    • Inflammation and thickening of the intestines
    • Lesions, necrosis, or ulcers in the gut
    • Hemorrhages in the intestinal lining (seen in necrotic enteritis and coccidiosis)
    • Liver damage (common with Clostridium perfringens infection)
    • Presence of worms or coccidial oocysts

    4. Laboratory Testing

    • Bacterial culture and sensitivity testing to identify bacterial infections and guide antibiotic treatment.
    • PCR or ELISA tests for viral enteritis (such as rotavirus or adenovirus).
    • Histopathology of intestinal tissue to confirm necrotic enteritis, viral damage, or chronic inflammation.

Treatment

  • 1. Supportive Care

    • Provide clean, fresh water to prevent dehydration.
    • Electrolytes and probiotics to restore gut balance.
    • Nutrient-dense, easily digestible feed to support recovery.
    • Reduce stress by isolating affected birds and keeping the environment clean and dry.

  • 2. Antibiotics (For Bacterial Causes, Including Necrotic Enteritis)

    • Amoxicillin, tylosin, oxytetracycline, bacitracin or lincomycin are commonly used for enteritis caused by Clostridium perfringens.
    • Antibiotics should only be used under veterinary guidance to avoid resistance issues.

  • 3. Anticoccidials (If Coccidiosis is the Cause)

    • Amprolium and toltrazuril are effective for treating coccidiosis.
    • Sulfa drugs like sulfadimethoxine or sulfaquinoxaline may be used in some cases.

  • 4. Probiotics & Gut Health Support

    • Probiotics such as Lactobacillus and Bacillus subtilis help restore gut flora.
    • Organic acids like apple cider vinegar can help control harmful bacteria in the crop.

Prevention

1. Maintain Good Biosecurity & Hygiene

  • Keep coops, feeders, and waterers clean and dry to prevent bacterial and parasitic buildup.
  • Avoid overcrowding, as stress and poor sanitation increase disease risk.
  • Implement strict rodent and insect control, as pests can spread pathogens.
  • Quarantine new birds before introducing them to the flock.

2. Provide a Balanced Diet

  • Feed a high-quality, well-balanced diet that is easily digestible.
  • Avoid excess protein or poorly digested ingredients that encourage Clostridium perfringens overgrowth.
  • Prevent moldy or spoiled feed, which can introduce toxins that irritate the intestines.
  • Consider organic acids (butyric acid, apple cider vinegar) to promote gut health.

3. Support Gut Health with Probiotics & Prebiotics

  • Use probiotics (such as Lactobacillus and Bacillus subtilis) to maintain a healthy gut microbiome.
  • Add prebiotics (such as mannan-oligosaccharides or beta-glucans) to support beneficial gut bacteria.
  • Essential oils (such as oregano oil) have antibacterial properties and can help prevent bacterial overgrowth.

4. Prevent Coccidiosis

  • Necrotic enteritis often follows coccidial infections, so effective coccidiosis control is crucial.
  • Use coccidiostats (such as amprolium and toltrazuril) in feed or water in high-risk environments.
  • Vaccination against coccidiosis can help reduce the risk of secondary infections.

5. Maintain Clean Water & Proper Hydration

  • Provide fresh, clean water at all times.
  • Regularly disinfect drinkers and water lines to prevent bacterial buildup.

6. Reduce Stress & Environmental Risks

  • Keep proper ventilation and temperature control to prevent heat stress.
  • Reduce handling and transport stress, as stress weakens the immune system.
  • Ensure adequate space per bird to prevent overcrowding (10 - 15cm space per bird).

7. Avoid Overuse of Antibiotics

  • Unnecessary antibiotic use can disrupt gut bacteria and lead to resistance.
  • Only use antibiotics when prescribed by a veterinarian for confirmed bacterial infections.
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